Discrimination against Arab Americans and Other Middle Eastern Groups

    There are about 4 million Arab Americans in the U.S., which is about 2% of the American population. Their numbers are expected to grow to about 6 million by the year 2010, which will surpass the Jewish population in the U.S. There are 21 separate Arab nations, but the U.S. and U.N. only recognize 19 of them. Further, America is only on "friendly" terms with about 16 of them. There are Middle Eastern countries that do not claim to be Arab, and there are Arab countries not in the Middle East. Most Arab Americans are admitted under refugee or asylee status, and there are also a significant number of F-1 and H-1 visas issued.

    I'll try to sort this out for you in some tables later, but it's important you understand there's no simple definition of who an "Arab" is. That word refers to those who speak the Arabic language, but almost every country's version of Arabic is different from another's (e.g., Jordanian Arabic is quite different from Algerian Arabic), and to make matters worse, several Arab countries have internal ethnic groups who speak a totally different form of Arabic or some non-Arabic language.

    The preferred terms are Middle Easterners or Muslims (not Moslems). The first phrase is the favorite of textbooks, particularly Sociology textbooks. The second refers to a religious association with Islam, has more meaning for them in terms of world evangelism, and puts them on par with how Jews are defined as a religion. However, not all Arabs are Muslims; many are Christians, some are Hindu, and a few are Atheists. This population as a whole doesn't really object strongly to being suffixed and hyphenated, so I'll refer to them hereafter as Arab-Americans, and provide some representative webpages in the tables:

Let's start with the bottom table first.

    Iranian immigrants in the U.S. number about 250,000. They are non-Arabic because they only use Arabic script in their writing, but speak a language called Farsi, which is Persian (a older, non-Arabic tongue). 95% of Iranians are Muslims, in particular, Shi'ite Muslim (which is the state religion). Minority groups in Iran include Jews, Armenians, Assyrians, and Bahai, and these are mainly the groups that immigrate to the U.S. In fact, almost all Iranian Jews fled the country when the Shah of Iran fell out of power. During the 1979 hostage crisis, many Iranian immigrants were victims of hate crime and F-1 visas were revoked, despite the fact that almost all Iranians in the U.S. were NOT Shi'ite Iranians who started the crisis. Iran today is a nation weakened by their 15-year war with Iraq, unemployment is running at about 30%, and a new regime offers hope of replacing the rule of clergy which has dominated the country's politics for so long.

    Israeli immigrants only number about 100,000 (we're not counting the number of Jews already in America which number 5 million, just immigrants from Israel). Israel contains Palestine, which is a border nation consisting of land formerly belonging to Israel, Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. 20% of the Israeli population is Arab, and half of these are Christian Arabs and the other half are Muslim Arabs (mostly Palestinians). 80% of the Israeli population is Jewish, also divided into two groups: Ashkenazim and Sephardim. The Ashkenazim are descended from European stock, and the Sephardim are descended from Spanish, Mediterranean, or (current) Arabian nation stock. The majority of Jews in Israel are Sephardim while the majority of Jews in America are from European stock. About an equal number of Ashkenazim and Sephardim immigrate to the U.S. each year. The nation of Israel is a small country with about 60% desert. Religious freedom is tolerated and supported, as Christian, Jewish, and Muslim holy places exist side-by-side. Israelis have the highest standard of living of any Middle Eastern country.

    Turkish immigrants number about 100,000 and have their official language called Turkish (a non-Arabic tongue which is derived from Persian, like the Iranians). Minority groups in Turkey include Kurds, Arabs, and Greeks, and these are some of the groups that immigrate to the U.S. although many Turkish immigrants have been upper class, doctors, lawyers, or engineers. Turkey is 99% Muslim, and perhaps the most pro-Western or Western-like country in the Middle East. They are regularly criticized by Amnesty International for military police crackdowns on their political dissidents and minorities.

    Algerian immigrants are fairly new to America, in the last few years, during 1997 and 1998. Their country has been locked in a bloody civil war since 1992, involving fundamentalists who are intent on purging the country of atheists and other non-believers. The country is nearly 100% Sunni Muslim.

    Tunisian immigrants are fairly recent arrivals to America, and although wages are low in their home country, it is regarded as the most stable, promising, semi-democracy in the Arab world. They have good relations with the U.N., U.S., and the rest of the Arab world.

    Moroccoan immigrants are fairly new to America, and most are from the large city of Casablanca. Their home country is stable, and there is a growing middle class, but dissidents and activists complain that their human rights are violated.

    Libyan immigrants are few in number. The desert country of Libya is ruled by Colonel Mu'ammaru Gadhafi, who has been a constant target of assassination (even though the U.S. doesn't have such a policy, it would like to see the popular leader go). The economy is stable and growing, mostly due to trade with Italy and other Arab nations. There are a number of foreign workers and foreign-born people in Libya.

    Bahrainian immigrants are one of the wealthiest groups in this category. They have their own university system, a good economy, and the U.S. gets few immigrants other than some students.

    Egyptian immigrants are from one of the countries with the least restrictions on women (they don't have to be veiled). In fact, among the upper class of Egypt, women are the head of the household and men do all the child-rearing. Egypt also has a strong Christian element among its population.

    Iraqi immigrants, or at least most of them, entered the U.S. during the 1950s and 1960s wave (along with Syrians) to escape political turmoil in the region. An earlier, but significant, wave of Iraqis came to Detroit around 1924 to work in the nation's auto industry. The city of Detroit-Dearborn now has the largest Arab-American community in the U.S. Many Arab-Americans of Iraqi descent are Christians. Iraq is currently led by Sadham Hussein, another leader that the U.S. would like to see go.

    Jordanian immigrants have typically been from one of the most stable and pro-Western countries in the region. Their culture has few restrictions on women (they don't have to be veiled), but they limit their contact with men from outside the family.

    Kuwaiti immigrants are few in number. The nation of Kuwait is an oil-rich country, and many of its citizens have invested in land abroad. 95% of the people are Muslim. During 1990-91, the U.S. intervened to rescue the country from being annexed by Iraq.

    Lebanese immigrants, or at least the majority of them, entered the country during the 1980s or before, as far back as 1958 when the U.S. intervened to quell the first civil war. A second civil war started and lasted from 1975-1990, turning Beirut into a blast zone, from which it is now only slowly recovering. This war ended primarily due to Syrian intervention, which still retains an influence despite occasional Israeli incursions into the area to root out terrorist groups like the PLO or Hezballah who are hiding out there. The problem seems to be that the Lebanese people are at war with themselves. The people are divided. About half of Lebanese are Muslims, and the other half are Christians. Both groups are radical.

    Omani immigrants are one of the wealthiest groups in this category, and citizens of Oman (a Sultanate) generally enjoy good living conditions, but they have had a history of civil war and there are fears their oil reserve is running out.

    Palestinian immigrants were the second big group of Arab Americans, and most of them came in a wave between 1940 and 1948, about the time the nation of Israel was founded. Another large influx arrived in the 1970s during the Six-Day War between Israel and her neighbors. The Palestinian people are the world's most well-known refugees. About 3-4 million of them are scattered around the world. Their homeland consists of two areas, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, two of the most fertile places in the Middle East. Economic conditions are poorer in the Gaza than West Bank. The Palestinians also claim the occupied city of Jerusalem, but Israel and other religious groups have no intention of giving it up. Renegade Israeli settlers have encroached on other parts of Palestine. Yassir Arafat, head of the PLO, is now the president of Palestine which declared itself a sovereign nation in 1988, but only about 60% of the countries in the world recognize the nation of Palestine. The city of Gaza is the functional capitol. The Palestinian people are a mix of Muslim, Christian, and Catholic religions. Their culture does not place any restrictions on the rights of women.

    Qatari immigrants are one of the wealthiest groups in this category, and they come from a small, highly urbanized emirate which is completely dependent on their oil reserves, which are expected to run out in about 25 years. Fewer than 25% Qataris are indigenous, as most of the nation consists of assimilated foreigners.

    Saudi Arabian immigrants are one of the wealthiest groups in this category. Their culture is extremely restrictive on women, mandating that they must always be veiled, should not mix with men, and should not drive a car. The U.S. and the Saudis are on friendly terms, but there always seems to be some mistrust in the background.

    Syrian immigrants were the first big group of Arab Americans, and most of them came in a wave between 1880 and 1940 seeking to escape the Turkish Ottoman Empire. A substantial proportion were farmers, artisans, or entertainers. Another influx of Syrians came during the 1950s and 1960s to escape political turmoil in the region. Contemporary immigration is mostly limited to a few students and businessmen.

    United Arab Emirates (UAR) immigrants are one of the wealthiest groups in this category, and the U.S. gets very few immigrants. The UAR is a federation of 7 emirates who usually side with the U.S. or U.N. in disputes with other Arab countries.

    Yemeni immigrants have trickled into the U.S. throughout the 20th Century at a fairly constant rate. They come from a country with moderate oil reserves and a dependency upon foreign aid and imports.

ECONOMIC DISCRIMINATION

    While some Arab-American immigrants are wealthy, other are poor, sometimes extremely poor. The contrasts are stark, almost as if there's no Arab middle class. The same pattern exists with a number of other variables: education, urbanity, and outlook toward modernization, although Arab-Americans as a whole are more highly educated than many other ethnic groups (except for Cubans). There's a big difference, however, between the Arab-American from the city and one from the country, and the difference is mainly economic, with country folk less likely to embrace technology and modernization.

    Arab-Americans also have large families, in what are called extended families (aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents are treated as immediate family). There may be only one breadwinner in the household, and he (or the occasional she) must support all these people. Arab-Americans also usually have three names. They keep their father's last name for life, and they never change their other names after marriage or divorce.

    Across inner-city areas of America, many Arab-American businessmen operate liquor stores (usually close to Korean grocery stores). They have a reputation for selling alcohol to anybody and will even accept food stamps. They will attack customer would-be-robbers themselves rather than rely on police protection or services. Since Arab-Americans don't drink alcohol, there's controversy and resentment about their being in this line of business, especially from the black community.

SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION

    Stereotypes abound of Arab-Americans, and they are mostly negative. The Western image of the Arab is as Ali Baba, Sinbad, the thief of Baghdad, white slave owners, harem dwellers, and sheiks. The facts are that harems and polygamy have been abolished, for the most part, in the Arab world, and only a small number of Arab nations have "sheiks", not all of them. This came out in the FBI's ABSCAM investigation during 1978 where agents posed as "sheiks" to entrap eight members of Congress into taking bribes. If the Congressmen had been more knowledgeable, they would have known that the agents who said they were sheiks from Oman and Lebanon were lying because Oman and Lebanon are countries that have no "sheiks". The FBI was later criticized by Congress for perpetuating stereotypes in the ABSCAM operation.

    Arab-Americans generally shun, or reject, social services. They are not generally open to the idea of social service intervention into private affairs. They stand closer to one another and shake hands longer in conversations and meetings. The most appropriate gesture (that Americans are welcome to use) is to shake hands and then place their right hand on their chest near their heart (kissing on both cheeks is not an acceptable greeting between Arabs and non-Arabs). In conversation, it's important in Arab culture to "feel a person's breath" and to stare directly in the eyes to read pupil motion. Public touching of the opposite sex is strictly forbidden, and there are a number of hand gestures which are very expressive and take the place of words (or supplement words) when combined with expression of negative emotion. Swearing is extremely insulting. Words have power.

MEDIA DISCRIMINATION

    Arabs are almost always portrayed on TV or in movies as evil or foolish. One Sesame Street character, always dressed like an Arab, is always the one that teaches negative words like "danger". In movies, they're always portrayed as villains or financial backers of espionage plots. One movie, Desperate Measure, portrays Arab fathers as people who abduct children and abscound into the Arab world. The more recent movie, Mummy, has been criticized for negative stereotypes, like the "I'll trade you my two sisters for a camel" line. Hulk Hogan movies are also particularly anti-Arab for some reason.

    Arab-Americans are always the victims of hate crimes whenever the U.S. becomes "unfriendly" with an Arab country. The largest number of attacks occur after events like a hostage crisis, a Gulf War, or a terrorist bombing.

RELIGIOUS DISCRIMINATION

    Although most of the settled Arab immigrants (say, those who immigrated prior to 1970) are Christians, most of the newcomers are Muslim, and Americans really understand very little about Islam. Both Christian and Muslim Arabs believe that "Allah" is the word for God. Christian Arabs believe that Jesus is the son of Allah. Muslim Arabs believe that Muhammed was the prophet of God and that Jesus did not exist or was a minor prophet.

    Muslims must abide by the "five pillars" of Islam: (1) profess their faith constantly, by the "In the Almighty name of Allah...." which always proceeds their written communication and sometimes their speech; (2) pray five times a day, at specified times, usually from the Koran; (3) give alms to the needy, which is usually expressed in hospitality, gifts, or other offers of help; (4) fast during the month of Ramadan, which always changes because they're on a lunar calendar; and (5) make a pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in their life.

    One of the most recent developments has been extensive building of mosques across America. A mosque is the Islamic equivalent of a church or synagogue. They're associated with preventing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, which doesn't use mosques. There are certain taboos about mosques which carry over into Islamic religious life as well. Their services should never be interrupted, you should never walk in front of a Muslim who is praying (this applies somewhat outside the mosque as well), you never step on a prayer mat or the section of floor where praying takes place, and you never let the Koran touch the ground or put anything over the top of it.

    The body, after death, is taboo. Upon death, a religious leader is called to consecrate the body. Autopsies or police attempts to obtain evidence samples will result in an intense citizen-police confrontation.

CRIMINAL JUSTICE DISCRIMINATION

    From the traditional Arab point of view, it's not proper to give a totally honest answer if a higher order value is at stake, like saving face or the family honor. In Arabic culture, this is not known as "lying", but "adjusting" or "bending" the truth. This feature of their culture may be annoying, to say the least, for police investigators.

    Restitution ("an eye for an eye...") is a fact of life in the Arab culture. If any member of the Arab-American's family is assaulted, there might be some attempt at retribution. Likewise, the family as a whole confronts a crisis head-on. If a police car shows up at an Arab-American house, it's like a magnet. Every family member comes out and starts talking to you at the same time. It doesn't happen very often, but you occasionally hear about an Arab-American father who shoots his daughter or other family member for disgracing the family. By and large, however, incidence of wife and child abuse are very low for this population, much lower than whites. Some Arab nations have very punitive punishments, Saudi Arabia, for example. An Arab-American arrested for shoplifting may plead for her life in order not to be sent back to Saudi Arabia to get her hand cut off. Most other Arab immigrants have not-so-fond memories of Turkish-style military police practices.

    Asking a Arab woman to remove her head clothing (religiously-mandated head scarf) is analogous to asking her to expose a private part of her body. Even the INS processes official photographs of Muslim women with their head coverings on. Another custom, which may aggravate police departments or anybody, is that Arabs say "no" by moving their head up and down (so the chin is upright) rather than the Western habit of moving the head left and right. In this context, "yes" means "no".

POST-9/11 DISCRIMINATION

    According to reports such as those tracked by ARC, incidents of hate crimes began to file in after September 11, and Arab Americans and Muslims living in Chicago braced themselves for the anticipated climate of discrimination and violence.  Mosques, Arab community centers, and Arab-owned businesses were vandalized, women and girls wearing the traditional Muslim head covering, the hijab, were harassed and assaulted, and a Moroccan man in Bridgeview, a suburb of Chicago with a large Arab and Muslim population, was spat on by two people and then attacked with a machete. Also in Bridgeview, a mob of jingoistic Americans attempted to march on the neighborhood mosque with sticks and bats before they were stopped by state and local police.

    Nor were the vigilante reactions (see Lecture on vigilantism) the only thing, the U.S. government rounded up about 1,147 Arabs and Arab Americans in a huge bout of terrorist-racial profiling after 9/11.  Nicole Davis' article at ARC, entitled "The Slippery Slope of Racial Profiling" informs us that the following criteria were used by authorities to stop, search, detain, and question Darrell Issa (a U.S. Congressman).

INTERNET RESOURCES
American Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee
Applied Research Center
Arab-American Directory: Who's Who in the Arab-American Community
Arab World
Center for Middle Eastern Studies
CIA Map of the Middle East
Encyclopedia of the Middle East (free)
MIT Arab Student Organization
Sample of Spoken Arabic

PRINTED RESOURCES
CIA World Factbook (any edition)
Haddad, Y.Y. (1997). Belonging in the West: Multiple Challenges of Muslim Communities. The World & I magazine, pp. 50-59.
Malkin, M. (2004). In Defense of Internment. Washington DC: Regnery. [author's website]
Nydell, M. (1987). Understanding Arabs: A Guide for Westerners. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Shusta, R., D. Levine, R. Harris & H. Wong. (1995). Multicultural Law Enforcement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Withrow, B. (2006). Racial Profiling: From Rhetoric to Reason. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Last updated: 05/24/05
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